Chemical stressors
- Insecticides, including pyrethroids and systemic neonicotinoids such as imidacloprid, thiamethoxam and clothianidin. Insects can be poisoned by spray, dust and through consumption of pollen and nectar.
- Fungicides such as chlorothalonil, which is used widely in the US on peanuts, potatoes, tomatoes and other crops.
- Antibiotics including oxytetracycline, which are used to combat diseases such as American Foulbrood.
- Industrial pollutants can also have effects on the behaviour and health of bees. For example, manganese – a heavy metal commonly used in the production of steel and batteries – can accumulate in the nectar of plants where it is consumed by bees. One study suggests that manganese consumption has a negative impact on bees’ foraging abilities.
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